CONCEPT FOR THE CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES IN UKRAINE

H. T. Krynytskyi1, Yu. I. Hayda2, R. M. Yatsyk3, V. I. Parpan4, S. A. Los5 1 Ukrainian National Forestry University, Lviv, Ukraine 2 Ternopil National Economical University, Ternoil, Ukraine 3 Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine 4 Ukrainian Research Institute of Mountain Forestry, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine 5 Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration, Kharkiv, Ukraine


Introduction
In many countries, the conservation of forest genetic resources is identified as one of the priorities of their forest policy.In Ukraine, the activities for conservation of genetic diversity of forest tree species has a long history.The first steps in this direction were taken as part of investigations on the main forest tree species provenance tests (almost 100 years ago) and during the deployment of breeding program with forest species more than half a century ago (selection of plus trees and stands).The large-scale and purposeful activity of gene pool conservation started in Ukraine synchronously with the other Soviet republics in the early 1980s, based on methodological approaches which were contained in the regulations of national importance "Regulations on the allocation and conservation of forest tree species genetic pool of the USSR" (1982).Most objects and territories of the gene conservation, which entered the current state register, were selected just at that time (Patlai, et al., 1994).
The analysis of the results of inventory and investigations on genetic reserves, plus stands and trees in Ukraine, which have been made in recent years (Volosianchuk, et al., 2001;Hayda, et al., 2008;Yatsyk, et al., 2006Yatsyk, et al., , 2008)), studying the experience of foreign countries in this area (Behm, et al., 1997;Bonfils, 1998;De Vries & Heinze, 1998;Müller & Schultze, 1998;Paul, et al., 2000), give grounds to speak about the need for some adjustment of legal, institutional and organizational principles for conservation of the genetic diversity of forests in our country.
One of the first steps to optimize the regulatory and organizational support for the process of genetic resources conservation was the development of "Concept of conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Ukraine".

The importance and necessity of forest genetic resources conservation
The principle of the unity of the environment, economy and social security has became for many countries the fundamental principle in the formation of their national strategies for sustainable development.The necessary condition for sustainable development is the conservation of biodiversity at the global, regional and local levels.In 1992, at the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro, the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted.As indicated in the Convention, the biodiversity includes diversity within the species, between species and diversity of ecosystems.Since all the levels of biodiversity are based on genetic variability, the measures, which are provided in this document, deal with the genetic variability of living organisms, including forest tree and woody shrub species.Ukraine has committed to adhere to the Convention and ratified it in the parliament (Law No. 257/94-BP of November 29, 1994).
The problem of the conservation and sustainable utilization of forest genetic resources are connected closely with the process of the implementation of the above mentioned Convention.The transformation processes that have been taking place in the social and economic relations in Ukraine in recent decades, as well as global natural disasters have increased the likelihood of risks of reducing the genetic potential of forest ecosystems.That is why the conservation of forest genetic resources is a relevant and urgent problem of the Ukrainian state and society.
The motives, which urge humanity to deploy activities for conservation of genetic variability of forest tree species, have economic, environmental, ethical, scientific, cultural backgrounds.
1.1.The economic backgrounds.Among the economic benefits from conservation of forest genetic resources, one can distinguish the direct and indirect, as well as current and future benefits.To the direct positive effects belongs continuous utilization of material forest goods (wood, medicinal plants, wild berries and fruits).The indirect economic effects include preserving the environmental conditions of human life (one of the most important economic resources) by improving the quality of environmental factors (air, water, soil), increasing the effectiveness of the sanitary, recreational, aesthetic and other useful functions of forest ecosystems.A special place among the economic incentives is to preserve opportunities of obtaining future perspective forest varieties and new products of forest ecosystems, yet unknown due to incompleteness of human knowledge.
1.2.Ecological backgrounds.Gene conservation will preserve the proper (natural) levels of adaptive capacity of forest species to changing environmental conditions, their evolutionary potential and biological diversity at the levels of species and ecosystems.Forest ecosystems will have in this case an opportunity to perform consistently protective functions for water, soil and climate regulation.

Ethical backgrounds.
Thanks to the conservation of genetic diversity of forests today's society has the opportunity to fulfill their moral obligation to future generationto transfer unchanged richness of forms and varieties of living organisms, species and ecological diversity.
1.4.Motives of scientific and educational, cultural and aesthetic character.Conservation of forest genetic resources extends a research field for current and future cognition of the laws and phenomena of animate and inanimate nature; it creates better opportunities for environmental-biological educational activity, cultural and aesthetic upbringing of the population.

Classification of factors endangering genetic diversity of forest tree species
The genetic variability is an important characteristic of all living organisms, including forest tree species, and a necessary condition for biological evolution.In addition, genetic variability is not a static phenomenon in space and time, and it is controlled by total (complex) influence of evolutionary forces of varying intensity and direction (mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, and inbreeding).
The last century observed the excessive narrowing of the genetic variability of many organisms, including forest tree species, mainly because of the ill-considered human economic activity.There exists the full range of factors of such endangering genetic diversity risks.But we have always to keep in mind that these factors affect the genetic variability transitively through the action of main evolutionary driving force (Fig. 1).• global level: (significant climate change; ozone layer depletion; economic globalization processes, etc); • national and regional levels: (excessive scope of forest utilization; consequences of implementation of groundless environmental projects (drainage, irrigation, construction of storage reservoirs, etc.);

Legal framework for forest genetic resources conserving
The effective objectives achievement of conserving genetic diversity of forest tree species is impossible without proper legal support.

International legal regulations.
The most important international legal documents which regulate the activities for conservation of genetic resources of forest species are listed in Table 1.The Convention on Biological Diversity outlines the common methods of biodiversity conservation (Articles 8 and 9), stresses the need to monitor components of biological diversity (Article 7) and reports the necessity to facilitate the exchange of genetic resources (Article 15), information (Article 19), technology (articles 16 and 19).
The main idea that permeates the entire Convention proves the impossibility to ensure the proper conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity wihin narrow national framework.In order to enhance collaboration and coordination in the field of conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources and thus to implement the decisions of Strasburg MCPFE conference, the pan-European program EUFORGEN was launched in 1994, in which Ukraine also participated in 1994-1999.
3.2.National legal regulations.The most important national legal regulations, which make a legal base for ensuring the protection of forest genetic resources in Ukraine, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. National regulation acts on conservation of forest genetic resources in Ukraine Year
Legal regulations 1980 "Guidelines on forest seed growing" (USSR) 1982 "Regulations on the allocation and conservation of the gene bank of forest tree species of the USSR" 1991 Law of Ukraine "On protection of environment" 1992 Law of Ukraine " On Nature Reserve Fund of Ukraine" 1993 "Guidelines on forest seed growing"(Ukraine) 1994 The Law of Ukraine " On Ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity" An analysis of legal acts with the status of the law indicates that they regulate only the basic principles and general provisions for the processes of selection, conservation and use of genetic resources of forest tree species.Specific steps and approaches in this activity are detailed, regulated,explained and instructed by the regulations of the departmental level.
The basic criteria and process steps of selection, conservation and use of genetic resources of forest tree species are differentiated for the individual objects of gene pool conservation − genetic reserves, plus stands, plus trees, archival and clonal plantations and are regulated in the "Guidelines on the forest seed growing" (1993).The document establishes the norms of forest inventory and spatial parameters of genetic reserve stands and their buffering zones, a list of permitted forestry activities, as well as the selection criteria and ways of use of plus stands and plus trees.In the guidelines, regulations are also written out on the technology of creation and use of clone banks, family and clonal seed orchards as objects of conservation and renovation of valuable gene pool.

The methods for conservation of genetic variability of forest tree and woody shrub species
Basic methods for conservation of forest genetic resources are divided into two groups: in situ and ex situ.

Conservation methods in situ.
The methods in situ include conservation of genetic resources within ecosystems and natural habitats of growth, and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the environment in which they acquired their characteristic features.
In most European countries, including Ukraine, the main object of gene pool conserving in situ are genetic reserves.
Forest genetic reserve is a part of a natural forest that covers the entire population of forest tree species, or only a part which is valuable in terms of genetic selection, and is representative of the corresponding nature-climatic (forest seed) region.The genetic and breeding value of such plots is in the presence of wide amplitude of genotypic and phenotypic variability, which provides for high adaptive capacity of species to changing environmental conditions and creates the opportunities for effective breeding programs.
The objects of gene conservation in situ in Ukraine also include plus stands and plus trees.
Plus stand is a forest stand with the highest possible productivity for this type of forest growth conditions, with stand density not less than 0.6 and high quality structure (the share of plus and the best normal trees depending on the density of the forest stand should be 15-27 %).
Plus tree is a tree a unique genotype of which gives it a significant advantage in growth, quality and other economic important characteristics in comparison with other trees of the same species and age, growing with it in identical conditions.
For less-common, rare, endemic and relict species, for which there are significant threats of depletion of the gene pool or even extinction, some trees (even if they do not meet the plus tree criteria) or their groups can be preserved in situ.

Conservation methods ex situ.
The methods include ex situ gene conservation technologies whereby the evacuation of organisms or parts of them from their natural growth habitats are undertaken.These technologies include the establishment of clonal and seedling seed orchards or the creation of collection plantations, banks of seed, plant tissue and pollen.
In Ukraine there are following gene conservation objects ex situ: clone banks, seed orchards, collection and test plantations.
Clone bank (clone archive) is a collection plantation of vegetative offspring of valuable trees, created for their conservation, reproduction and study.
Seed orchards (clonal, seedling) are plantations on which vegetative and seed progeny of plus trees are represented.They are created for harvesting seeds with high hereditary properties.
Plantations for testing are plantations in which the short-or long-term comparative tests of seed offspring of plus trees, forms or populations are conducted on the uniform environmental background.
Depending on the intraspecific taxon origin of forest tree species, the following classification of testing is used.

Methods which are integrated into forestry practices.
Methods in situ and ex situ are specific conservation tools of genetic variability of forest species and require special knowledge and skills.There are conservation measures, which can be integrated into regular forestry practice: • to prefer the natural regeneration of forest stands (in favorable conditions); • to use the reproductive material of local origin in silviculture; • to use effectively the permanent forest-seed establishments as a source of high quality seeds.• to undertake the transfer (spatial movement) of seeds only in accordance with the valid forest-seed zoning; • to avoid the intensive sorting plant material in size in the forest nursery; • to establish forest plantations of optimal density in proper site conditions to facilitate natural processes of thinning and to raise their biological stability; • to preserve the genetic diversity in forest stands during the artificial thinning; • to achieve gradual transition from a system of clear cutting to successive and selection felling; • to introduce methods of close-to-nature forest management.

Development of strategies of forest genetic resources conservation
The strategies (programs, regulations, instructions, guidelines, recommendations) of conservation of genetic resources of certain forest species or groups of them are the concrete instrument for implementing this concept, which regulates all the quantitative and qualitative requirements to gene conser-vation objects, their structural and spatial organization, location within the gene ecological (forest seed) areas.

Schematic diagram of the development of strategies for gene pool of forest tree and woody shrub species conservation.
This chart was developed based on international and national long-term theoretical research and practical experience solution of problems of conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources (Wolf & Braun, 1995, Matyas, Ackzell & Samuel, 2004, Ducousso & Bordacs, 2004, Geburek & Turok, 2005).The process of elaboration of national strategies and technologies for gene pool of forest tree and woody shrub species conservation should start with the assessment of the natural area of species in the country (Fig. 2).
After passing all stages of the development of the strategy for gene pool conservation, it is necessary to proceed to formulation of its basic elements: we define the possibility of conservation procedure, the level of its urgency, the methods for conserving in situ and ex situ which are most suitable for this species, quantitative and qualitative parameters of the existing gene conservation objects, the most effective ways of combination of the procedures of conservation and use of genetic variability with the purposes of breeding and seed harvesting.

Graduation of urgency of implementing procedures of conservation of forest genetic resources. Forests of
Ukraine are characterized by the high level of forest tree species diversity.These forest tree and woody shrub species are characterized by different levels of significance (envi-ronmental, economic, scientific etc.), by various degrees of threat to their gene pool.Taking into consideration the limitedness of resources (financial, institutional, human) which are necessary for implementation of the gene conservation, it is advisable to unite the tree species in groups, depending on the urgency of conservation of the gene pool.It is proposed to establish three levels of urgency: 1) urgent conservation; 2) indispensable conservation; 3) desired conservation.

The sustainable use of benefits from the conservation of forest genetic resources
Pragmatic target of the conservation of forest genetic resources is to create conditions for the sustainable use of diverse and complex benefits that will arise from this today and in future.These benefits one can divide into two groups: explicit and implicit (Fig. 3).

Explicit benefits.
To the explicit benefits of conservation of forest genetic resources belongs a set of goods and services produced by forest ecosystems and used by consumers directly or indirectly.The part of obvious benefits can be divided among the users by means of the market mechanism (the benefits such as wood, recreational services), the other part of benefits is not a market commodity, it serves all people in general (clean air, clean water, climate regulation, soil erosion reduction, CO 2 absorption, wildlife habitats conservation, etc.).The obvious benefits also include the possibility to get the high quality, genetically valuable reproductive material in the form of seeds or self-sown crop in nurseries under canopy of stands, creation of conditions for the implementation of various breeding programs to improve productivity, quality and stability of forest plantations.

Implicit benefits.
Implicit benefits include the following components of usefulness, which are perceived not through the traditional human senses, but through mental, spiritual sense (e.g.pleasure from performing a moral duty to contemporaries and future generations concerning the transfer of forests with wide genetic diversity).In addition, this group of benefits includes potential benefits from the conservation of genetic variation that may occur in the future as expected (ensuring the adaptation of populations of forest species to new environmental conditions in the future) and unexpected (receiving the new type of product or service, unknown today).

Scientific support of forest genetic resources conservation
The problem of the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources is relatively new, and, therefore, contains many unresolved scientific issues.The process of selection and creation of objects of forest gene pool conservation in Ukraine, and as in many other countries, began in conditions of lack of knowledge concerning the level, dynamics, spatial structure of genetic variation of forest tree species.It was forced, but quite justified step under conditions when the rate of the gene pool depletion greatly exceeded the possibilities of contemporary science.Therefore, the task of providing scientific support for all measures of conservation of forests genetic diversity remains relevant until now.
The priority areas of research in this field are as follows: • research of the history of species migration in the post-glacial period (refugia, periods and route of migration, tree colonization, adaptation, extinction); • studying biological and ecological characteristics of forest tree and woody shrub species, particularly of less-common and rare; • widening and deepening studies of genetic variability of forest tree species using morphological, biochemical and molecular techniques (level variation, genetic structure of populations, the genetic basis of reproductive processes); • quantitative assessment of the risks of reduction and modification of the genetic variability of forest species • assessment of the impact of forestry activities on the state of forest genetic resources; • determination of the optimal size, structure and spatial organization of gene conservation objects; • development of the methods of genetic inventory and monitoring of forest genetic resources; • improvement of technologies ex situ conservation (induction of flowering and fruiting in clonal seed orchards, long-term storage of seed, microvegetative propagation); • interdisciplinary investigation of gene conservation objects (genetic and cenopopulation aspects of long-term stability and self-renewal); • expansion of the network of provenance, eco-geographical, eco-population, edaphical, progeny tests in Ukraine • intensification of scientific cooperation with international programs on gene conservation (EUFORGEN and others).

Realization of concept for conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Ukraine
8.1.Methodological principles of implementing the concept.The retrospective analysis of experience in conserving forest genetic resources in Ukraine, the countries of the former Soviet republics, advanced forest countries of the world show that methodologically this process should be based on the principles of systems, priority and permanence.
Systems principle consists in structuring the process of gene conservation as a system of logically interconnected successive stages (subsystem) (Fig. 4).Consistent process of passing through all these stages requires proper legal support.The analysis of the current state of the legislative support (see Chapter 3) shows that the processes of selection, conservation and use of forest genetic resources are regulated by a large number of international, national and regional legal documents.However, the declarative norms of many of them indicate the necessity of their additions and improvements.
The principle of priority means identifying first and foremost steps and measures for their implementation under conditions of limited resources (financial, material, labor, information).
The principle of permanence ensures the continuity of the implementation of programs on conservation of forest genetic resources.The first step of this process in Ukraine is precisely the elaboration of the national concept for the conservation of forest genetic resources as a basic legal document that defines the main ideas of forestry ideology in this area, sketches out the overall strategy of the process and ways of its implementation.Detailing of conservation measures concerning concrete species and regions is realized at the next stage during the development of strategies and technologies (regulations, guidelines, directives, recommendations) for conservation of genetic resources of individual species or their groups.

Program of conservation of forest genetic resources in Ukraine.
Such a program is a plan of consolidated actions of different institutions for a certain period (10-15 years) concerning implementation of the total and partial strategies for conservation of genetic diversity of forests.The National Program for conservation of forest genetic resources must be a practical implementation plan of the main provisions of the Concept through the implementation of strategies for tree species conservation according to the order of their urgency.Each program has its own time horizon, after which an analysis of its implementation is made and the results of this analysis is taken into account when developing the next new program.
The main measures from each sections of the program are planned with indication of time of fulfillment, responsible institution and necessary funding.
The experience of many countries testify that national programs on forest genetic resources should be closely linked to national forest programs and vice versa.
In many countries, including Ukraine, more attention is paid to the conservation of biodiversity at the ecosystem and species levels.At the same time, insufficient resources are being sent to research and preservation of genetic diversity.Therefore, the proposed programs from the very beginning must be coordinated with the current program "Forests of Ukraine" and the draft Program of biodiversity conservation in Ukraine.

Potential participants of the program for conservation of forest genetic resources in Ukraine.
Development and implementation of the program require the combined efforts of many institutions -government agencies, academic institutions, non-governmental organizations.Coordinating a wide range of organizational, methodological, scientific tasks needs to establish a working group (steering committee) of experts -representatives of the relevant institutions and organizations.

Conclusion
In the "Concept for the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources in Ukraine" described are the topicality and necessity for conservation, well as classification of factors endangering genetic diversity of forest tree species; also analyzed here is the legal basis for forest genetic resources conservation, the methods and strategy for genetic variability of forest tree species conservation are indicated, attention was paid to the benefits from sustainable use of forest genetic resources, the necessity of scientific support of this process was pointed out, and the ways for implementation of this concept were developed.
During the period that passed after the elaboration and approval of the concept of conservation and use of the forest genetic resources, a series of events took place in Ukraine towards implementation of the main provisions of the concept."Regulations on the allocation, conservation and sustainable use of the gene pool of forest woody species in Ukraine" were developed and approved (Hayda, et al., 2011).At a request of FAO, for the purposes of determining the state of the world's genetic resources, the national report "The state of forest genetic resources in Ukraine" was prepared (Los, et al., 2014).However, it should be noted that there is a number of points which characterize the lack of attention from the public institutions of Ukraine to the problem of forest genetic resources conservation, namely, the lack of specific programs on conservation of forest genetic resources, low legal protection of many gene conservation objects, improper integration of principles of gene conservation in forestry practice, very low level of funding for research projects concerning the problem of conservation of forest genetic resources, lack of financial support which would allow to properly cooperate with international programs, first of all with EUFORGEN.It should be noted that in any case, no one and nothing can take the responsibility off the government, academic and public institutions to the future generations of our country for the proper conservation of the basis of forest existence -their biological diversity, including the genetic variation.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Transitive model of the factor effects' risk of reducing genetic diversity of forest species Factors of negative impact on forest genetic resources can be divided into groups of:

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of development of the strategy and technology for conservation of the genetic diversity of forest tree species

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Benefits from measures implementation of forest species genetic diversity conservation

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Structuring process of conservation and sustainable use forest genetic resources in Ukraine